The major client project I will be undertaking is to produce a 20 odd minute promotional video of Nottingham, to get accepted into England's footballing World Cup bid.
The project is in association with Nottingham Forest Football Club, and therefore will not be able to be shown in the public domain.
However, the process of filming will be documented within this online journal.
Saturday, 15 December 2007
Saturday, 8 December 2007
Insect Repellent Label
The insect repellent label that will be used on the product in the advert has been finished.
The idea for the logo on the label was discussed with a graphics designer, and the final outcome after discussions and redesigns can be seen above.
The label has been printed onto 80 gms paper which is of a good quality. The original plan was to print the label onto a glossy white paper, but this concept was changed due to the glare that would reflect from the camera.
The label has been printed, and positioned on the middle of the insect repellent bottle. The positioning of the label is crucial especially to be seen on camera, therefore the central positioning of the label is the best choice for the label.
Tuesday, 4 December 2007
Literature Review
Due to the varying state of the cinema and evolution of visual technology, how has the role of a filmmaker changed over the last fifty years?
Barry Pulver
BA Multimedia
November 2007
Acknowledgements:
I would like to thank the following:
Edward Canfor-Dumas, for agreeing to an interview and for providing specific information and his experiences in the television industry.
Deborah Tuck, my tutor for this project.
Nottingham Trent University, for providing information on the structure in which research projects are to be written.
Abstract:
Film directors and producers are amongst some of the most recognisable people in the world. Their work is showcased to millions globally,and they can produce work that can take the audience on a journey to wherever they want to take them.
But how has the role of a filmmaker changed in the last 50 years?
During such a long period of time, cinema has under gone drastic changes and has seen large audience declines. In the modern day, where inventions such as digital television and the internet, along with affordable filming equipment have potentially threatened to spell the beginning of the end for cinema and therefore filmmakers.
Just how have filmmakers coped with the new visual technologies and ideologies that have had such an influence on Hollywood, and has their work and role of their job changed drastically over such a lengthy period of time?
Contents:
Content Page
Abstract 3
Contents 4
List of figures 5
Chapter One: Introduction 6
Chapter Two: Research Methods 8
Chapter Three: Survey of literature and works 10
Chapter Four: Discussion 15
Chapter Five: Conclusion 19
References 21
Bibliography 23
List of figures:
Figure 1 - Motion Picture Association of America 2007. U.S. Entertainment Industry Market Statistics 2006 [online] . Available at: http://www.mpaa.org/USEntertainmentIndustryMarketStats.pdf [Accessed November 9th 2007].
Introduction:
The terminology of the title 'filmmaker' can refer to many differing roles as it is quite a general term. In this report, the word filmmaker refers to film directors and film producers.
Film at the cinema is a very popular and successful franchise, in fact in 2006, it is reported that the worldwide box office reached an all-time high, by taking $25.820 billion in revenue. Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA)
This has not always been the way, film has had many factors and opposition to compete with, and at times the state of the cinema seemed in great doubt. The late 1940’s saw audience figures decline, and this was the way through the 1950’s. The emergence of US broadcasting television networks in 1946 was one of the biggest competitors film and cinema had to compete against.
In addition, with the constant evolution in visual technology, many had predicted the downfall of traditional film projectors being used in cinemas and being replaced by digital projection screens. It is stated that at present in America, out of 38,000 movie screens, only 25 of those have the capable infrastructure necessary to receive digital films. J. Stevens (2007)
These changes in the industry have made the role of a filmmaker constantly change. From being a very specific and specialist job, the rise of independent filmmakers began the process of breaking the stranglehold of the major studios, which came to fruition started in the 1950’s which along with the development in hand held cameras and the impact that Von Trier’s and Vinterberg’s innovative Dogme filming concept had on filmmakers, gave inspiration for new filmmakers the inspiration to succeed.
The topic of research has been chosen because the role of a filmmaker is ever changing, and it is interesting to see how over the last fifty years the specific role of the filmmaker has changed with the impact of evolving visual technology.
This research project will delve into greater depth of the history of the cinema, changing visual technology and the state of the film industry over the last fifty years; from declining audience figures due to the impact of television in the 1940’s to the predicted modern day declining audience figures due to illegal distribution of films via the internet.
The project will discuss the evolution of visual technology, and compare it to the how successful cinema was, and the impact it had on filmmakers. It will explain the digitalisation of film, and how the lowering cost of production for digital films is making it easier for filmmakers to create films without the need of big production companies.
Research Methods:
The most applicable methodology to produce the research topic is a combination of mixed methods called triangulation.
Triangulation has been explained as:
“Triangulation is a term that refers to reliance on a combination of several methods including quantitative as well as qualitative strategies.” Fink (1998 p. 148)
Using this research method will enhance the research quantity and more importantly the quality and depth into the research area.
It is claimed that “no single method of collecting data is inherently better or has more quality than another.” Fink (1998 p.150) This reasoning is why multiple research methods are to be used as it will create a much broader and valuable depth to the research.
Qualitative research is one method that is going to be used for the research project. This method uses a variety of empirical methods, such as interviews and historical information, which are the main two that will be focused upon. The historical research is specifically relevant when explaining the change in technology over the last 50 years. It is said how “Qualitative research is harder, more stressful and more time-consuming than other types” of research. Delament 1992 (see Blaxter, Hughes and Tight p. 60) This is added when stating “Qualitative research...tends to focus on ‘the story’”. Fink (1998 p. 144) These quotes suggest that the reason for the more lengthy research time taken is due to the detail of information included. This will give the understanding of the historical changes in technology and the role of the filmmaker in history.
However, it is declared that, “Where two or more methods are used...try and verify the validity of the information”. Blaxter, Hughes and Tight (1996 p.77) This is a very useful and important quote which will be taken into consideration, as the validity of the information research is of the utmost importance, especially if a vast amount of literature is going to be researched. If the information is from an unknown or unrecognised source, it will be seen to have less credibility than information from a very relevant and appropriate source.
Along with validity, the clarity and appropriateness of the information is also important. It is stated that “Before beginning to review them all you must sort them to identify the ones that contain information”. Fink (1998 p.52) This just reinforces that the quality control of the research, with the amount of literature available needs to be condensed into only using the valid information.
The internet is a valuable resource for researching, however it is explained that the internet provides positives and negatives:
“its greatest advantage is that some portion of the world’s literature has been made conveniently available to you. A major disadvantage you have is that quality controls simply do not exist.” Fink (1998 p.37)
It is important that personal opinion or potential bias does not manipulate the information changing from the context in which it was originally stated. It is also important to understand the author’s opinion in the text, and present the information in a neutral way, also checking for any underlying persuasion in the content.
The use of statistical information is going to be used as a reliable way to display the information with a factual background. This will add validity to the argument, but the information must come from a viable source.
An interview with a multimedia practitioner will be undertaken as it will add a more valid discussion to the project, and speaking to the practitioner and receiving personal experiences within the industry, will help understand the topic far more clearly.
Survey of Literature and Works:
Looking back to just after one of Hollywood’s most successful years in 1946, It is explained how audience sizes began to decline at the cinemas, due to “population shifts to the suburbs...and growing interest in outdoor and participatory leisure activities.” Skyler (1993) This point is also developed further when it was stated that people would rather “spend their money on new consumer goods rather than movies”. Cousins (2004)
The audience decline would not improve drastically until the 1960’s, as the impact that the war had on America hit the film industry hard. It was also a hard time for American filmmakers themselves as was pointed out:
“It is perhaps not surprising that American filmmakers were going through a period of narrative soul searching. Not only had war darkened their sunny view of life, but closer to home, their industry was changing.” Cousins (2004)
The struggles that Hollywood encountered at this time lead to questions being raised, with the government challenging Paramount and other major companies (successfully) to not hold a financial interest in theatre ownership, (under violating U.S. laws against monopoly in restraint of trade) in the well publicised ‘Paramount Case’.
After the war and the Paramount Case, the increasing number of independent filmmakers rose sharply. It is commented how the major studios were clinging onto their traditions, whereas independent producers “began to break the strangehold of the major studios by tackling more daring subjects”. R. Bergan (see DK, 2003 p.394) The new approach to film, that the independent filmmakers had brought to the screen was a positive one, as by 1958, 65% of Hollywood movies were being made by independent filmmakers.
The problem was that the rise of independent films made by independent filmmakers, did not help the continuing decline of the cinema. Skyler (1993) described that by 1960, the weekly cinema attendance had fallen 63% from 1946. In turn, this led to reductions in production and employment in the industry.
As an effort to improve the declining cinema audiences, the early 1950’s saw new visual technology introduced. The introduction of wide-screen brought a transformation to the film image, in which the intention was to differentiate between the images shown for films and the television. Three differing processes offered wide-screen; in the name of Cinerama, Cinemascope and Panavision.
The filmmakers (most specifically producers) who were working for the big film companies, were instructed as to with which of the three colour technology's format they would be producing their work in. However, independent filmmakers had to be aware of each of the technology's without committing to one of them.
Whilst Cinerama was ultimately unsuccessful due to suffering problems with its three camera process, Cinemascope was used by Fox who produced more than 150 Cinemascope films until 1960. Panavision outnumbering CinemaScope, cam to an end in 1967.
However on the larger scale, wide-screen introduced a greater use of colour and sound to the cinema. The innovation of wide-screen has been related to the audience decline:
“Wide-screen served only a temporary palliative for Hollywood’s audience decline. Average weekly attendance rose in the year 1954-56 as spectators returned to theatres to take a look at highly publicised technologies, but when their novelty wore off the deeper causes for audience loss [were shown] – lifestyle changes and television.” Skyler (1993 p.316)
Arguably the greatest competition to the cinema was the rapid development of television. U.S television networks began broadcasting in 1946, which was at the peak of cinema and after this year the audience at the cinemas declined. Television gave audiences a more flexible approach to watching what they wanted to watch, and from the comfort of their own home. One advantage film had over television was the innovation of colour technology which was being used as opposed to black and white television. Eastman color was the dominant colour process used in the early 1950’s, at the time where television was having a major impact on the industry.
It is described how the use of colour accelerated “in particular during the early 1950s until colour films comprised some 50 per cent of total U.S. output.” Neale (1985) However despite the new innovations in technology (namely wide-screen and colour technology) cinema audiences continued to decline, this forced the decline of use of colour in film. This was until during the 1960’s when television converted to colour, in which “the use of colour in the cinema because virtually universal” Neale (1985).
It is explained how the 1960’s saw changes to the film audience, by the loss of the older audience, those over thirty. However it is said this “also helped a number of young filmmakers to get a chance to direct feature films”. Salt (1983) This was the period similar to the 1920’s where European filmmaking had an influence on American cinema. However, It is expressed how “Hollywood consolidated its position as the powerhouse of world cinema”, he does later concede that “challenged also by new kinds of cinema from other countries...Hollywood was forced to reinvent itself.” Buscombe (2003 p.11) Changing to the modern day, it is described how many Hollywood films have been made by filmmakers from other countries. Skyler (1993 p.497) The contrasting viewpoints do all suggest that Hollywood is still the main place of the cinema industry, and it is stated that the top twenty films box office hits in 2006 were all American. MPAA (Motion Picture Associate of America)
However, filmmakers are getting opportunities from all over the world to succeed, although now they do not have to migrate to Hollywood as the reinvention of Hollywood forced the cinema industry to look further afield for filmmakers.
The development of more portable cameras made it easier for more filmmakers to produce their work. The introduction of direct cinema could be attributed to the start of the phenomena. Direct cinema is described as “a desire to capture reality and represent it truthfully”. Morin (1980)
Direct cinema needed to be filmed using a light portable camera, and with sound. The first film to be made in this format was Primary in 1960, a widely seen film following presidential hopes at the time, J. F. Kennedy and H. Humphreys. This was made by filmmaker Robert Drew, and the film propelled him into a successful career in the television industry.
By the early 1960’s there was a demand for lighter cameras that were more portable, the technology was gradually introduced by developing previous camera technology. This was the very early start of what would develop into DV (Digital Video) technology which was portable, and as it was developed (especially through the 1990’s) became very inexpensive and allowed anybody to use the equipment and make their own films. Despite the widely inexpensive portable camera equipment, it is reported that:
“Independent production companies are facing increasing hardship as they struggle to raise finance fast enough to keep abreast of the spiralling costs of making and marketing movies”. LA Times (17/11/95)
In the same year in Copenhagen, Denmark, Lars Von Trier and Thomas Vinterberg created a manifesto called Dogme 95. Dogme 95 was a concept which was aiming to bring a purer form of film to the cinema. The concept is for the filmmaker to make a film with DV cameras, using no special effects or props and to take no credit for the production. Dogme 95 brought a new complexion to the use of filmmaking (specifically film direction) using a less technical approach to filming.
Coupled with the affordability of DV cameras, the introduction of the first personal computer from IBM in 1981, in which by 1984 professional computers had become powerful enough to contain whole films, it is explained that:
“The effect of video editing was that moving scenes, pieces of action or tiny moments around the film took seconds rather than minutes.” Cousins (2004 p.399)
The pinnacle success of a low budget movie was in 1999 with the success of the Blair Witch Project. Made for $30,000, it had earned more than $100 million in just one month, the film was the most profitable film of the year in the U.S. This was quite some success, considering Star Wars episode one, and Toy Story 2 (A film made entirely using digital technology) were released in the same year. It was reported that whilst not the best independent film ever made, “its success confirms the internet's power as a marketing tool.” L.A. Times (20/9/99) It was confirmed that the success of the film was due to it being “marketed on the internet”. Cousins (2003 p.457)
This success created a trend of many people producing and making their own productions which were accessible for free on the internet, specifically on social networking websites, most noticeably, MySpace.
It was explained how “many cultural pundits had predicted the decline” of television and film due to internet video, what has happened has been the opposite. Ringsurf (2004) It was reported that:
“The giant Internet service provider America Online (AOL) announced that it will acquire Time-Warner. The $165 billion merger has fuelled speculation that other unions between movie studios and Internet partners may be imminent.” New York Times (17/1/00)
This bold move and the success of the Blair Witch film, showed how the emergence of the internet and other new technology mediums would not necessarily hinder the filmmakers, but if linked together, could be marketed via the medium and become even more successful.
It was explained how fan pressure from the internet can have a direct impact on Hollywood filmmakers. After New Line Cinema decided to rethink the name of an upcoming film titled ‘Snakes on a Plane’, “fans slated the decision on websites and blogs and New Line changed its mind” and named the film as the fans had wanted. Clasper (via Telegraph 10/4/07)
It is thought that despite the potential of any filmmaker to distribute their film, ultimately the professional filmmaker's work will prevail:
“Quality seeks quality. The amount of work [on MySpace] which is viewed is excessive, however it is only viewed once and when the novelty has worn off people do not bother. If people are genuinely impressed with what they see, the audience will keep coming back. [This is] one reason why the roll of a filmmaker today is as important as it always has been.” Canfor-Dumas, E., (2007)
The worldwide use of the internet and it’s very close connection to cinema has people worried about the threat of film piracy and the impact it could have on cinema attendance. Two major issues were found on the subject; firstly that “the U.S. motion picture studios lost $6.1 billion in 2005 to piracy worldwide”. Interestingly they comment how only 38% of piracy is from the internet as opposed to 62% from hard goods i.e. DVDs. MPAA (2006)
It was also found that DVDs sold in 2006 reached a record $23 billion, in comparison to $9.5 billion box office revenue and $982 million for internet and cable movies. These statistics show that whilst the industry is making record profit, they are also losing record amounts of revenue from the increasing threat of piracy. Yahoo Finance’s (2007)
Discussion:
The originally discussed cinema decline post 1946 might have been over exaggerated by the sources quoted, due to what happened in 1946. Not only was one of the ultimately most successful films released entitled ‘It’s a Wonderful Life’, but it was the year of the first ever Cannes film festival. It is addressed that how “Much of what happened involved completing unfinished business from the 1930’s, postponed but also altered by the war”. Skyler (1993 p.274) The decline of the cinema sixty years ago could be compared to the decline in box office takings in 2005. It is displayed how the box office gross from being $9,539 billion in 2004, dropped to $8,991 billion in 2005, before rising to $9,487 billion in 2006:
Figure 1 – Showing the box office gross figures in America from 1986 to 2006.
This might well of coincided with the third biggest U.S. box office taking film Shrek 2 being released in 2004, and the sixth biggest being released in 2006 titled Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man’s Chest. IMDB (2006) This shows that the statistics are all relative and situational, and they do not represent the significant declines at the cinema for one specific reason, which the resources did appear to ignore.
It is pointed out in relation to the understanding in which filmmakers were undergoing difficulties during the decline, that this was a very understandable situation. With the war ending, filmmakers had to deal with life changing situations and the recovery of the economy. Filmmakers did their best, and one positive to come out of the decline was the introduction and development from Hollywood of the film noir genre. It is described that “film 'noir' has influenced younger filmmakers for decades.” Cousins (2004 p. 278) This is because the film noir motion was vastly different from the ‘happy endings’ and 'good defeating evil' theme that was the norm at the time. Film noir broke the stereotype barrier and allowed filmmakers to become more creative with their ideas.
The film noir genre inspired many filmmakers, specifically directors. It was breaking the tradition of films, and this lead to a new younger cinema audience and also gave inspiration to new and younger filmmakers.
The Paramount Case meant a significant change for filmmakers. It offered a lot more opportunities for independent filmmakers to get their work published and shown. The end of the case specifically saw the rise of ‘independent art house theatres’ in which independent films could also be shown. The Paramount Case ultimately made it easier for filmmakers to get the opportunity to show their work, if they were not working for a studio.
Similar to the Paramount Case, despite the rising independent films in 1958 not accounting for a halt in cinema's decline, the rise of independent film was a good thing for filmmakers. It gave another platform to showcase their work, and with more validity in which to do so. Unfortunately the continuing decline in the cinema led to reductions in production and employment in the industry. This move did force some filmmakers to turn to working independently not through choice, so whilst the opportunity for independent filmmakers to get their work published was on the increase, so was the competition between the filmmakers working independently.
The success of home television forced the film industry to take notice. Not before long, film studios were developing programming for television, and film stars were appearing on television instead. The cost of labour was cheaper abroad, so many filmmakers especially film producers decided to take their film production abroad. The success of American television, was proving to be a place where directors and producers would start their trade and become filmmakers, this again provided another medium for filmmakers to make it into the industry.
Hollywood being the centre of the film industry had always meant filmmakers having less opportunities in the industry unless moving to Hollywood. The impact of Dogme 95 (from Denmark) gave Europeans and those outside Hollywood (where opportunities are limited) inspiration and proof that filmmakers can be successful outside of Hollywood.
Similar to the success of Dogme, the development of portable cameras and their low cost has allowed filmmaking to be affordable. The success of the Blair Witch project shows that filmmakers do not have to spend big money to create a successful film. This has been another catalyst for more practitioners to attempt filmmaking.
Despite the prediction that the internet would be the end for cinema and film, it has proved to be a very valuable asset alongside film. Its marketing over the internet (especially for the Blair Witch), has shown how the internet can be used very efficiently by filmmakers as a promotional tool. The piracy issue is a negative issue for the internet and it causing a lot of distress for filmmakers. Piracy is increasing year upon year, although DVD piracy is the most common way of pirating films. Until the piracy issue is addressed fully, filmmakers will have reservations with the internet, without neglecting it due to its powerful reach and marketing ability.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, fifty years is a long time especially in the multimedia and film industry. The main development over that period of time is the change and evolution of visual technology. Many new technological advances and improvements have been made from an era where colour was just being introduced to the sector. However the ideology is essentially the same, as with years gone by, many wrongly in the industry still maintain that ‘bigger is better’ and special effects in films are what the industry should be based around. Filmmakers have always had to produce work that is asked of them from the film studios, however with the power that the audience possesses in the modern day, filmmakers do not have as much power as they used to.
Filmmakers now have more chances and domains to showcase their work. This is a positive due to the potential exposure that can be had, however the negative is that due to the affordability of video recording equipment, there is a lot of competition with many people competing in an industry where few succeed. If the quality of the product that the filmmaker produces is of a high standard, then the more opportunities are available to them in the modern day, which is far superior than in previous decades.
The Internet has become an increasingly important tool for filmmakers. The potential marketability this offers to a worldwide audience can be utilised by filmmakers, this tool is something that has not been available in past. This potentially allows filmmaker’s access to a more affordable and convenient film market, one that helps filmmakers that was not available in the past.
The Internet also offers communities for filmmakers to receive both help and assistance with current and future projects using other people’s experiences, it also is a potential way of contacting other workers in the industry and to hire crew or actors. This has only become a common practise over the last five years, especially with the success of social networking website such as MySpace.
Essentially the role of a filmmaker is the same, but the rise of the internet and technology such as portable cameras has allowed filmmakers in the modern day to be more privileged to more opportunities and a better and easier marketing tool. Along with the affordability of recording equipment and software allowing anybody to effectively become a filmmaker, it just reinforces that professional filmmakers will continue to flourish as they always have done, because the difference in quality between a professional and others is easily noticeable.
The main difference in the role of filmmakers now compared to fifty years ago, is that the majority of filmmakers now are independent workers, but upon their success at the cinema, they can ultimately join a film studio and produce their work for the company.
Filmmakers are still expected to produce films of the highest quality, and it is expected that with the development of better standards of visual technology, the films produced will be of the highest quality.
References:
Motion Picture Association of America 2007. [online]. . Available at: http://www.mpaa.org/ [Accessed October 30th 2007].
Ringsurf 2007. [online]. . Available at: http://www.ringsurf.com/online/898-stars_on_tv.html [Accessed November 2nd 2007].
Cinema year by year, 1894-2003. 2003. London: Dorling Kindersley.
BLAXTER, L., TIGHT, M., and HUGHES, C., 1996. How to research. Buckingham: Open University Press.
BUSCOMBE, E., 2003. Cinema today. London: Phaidon.
CLASPER, J., 2007. How audience power could shape the future of movie-making. Telegraph http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2007/04/10/bfcinema110.xml.
COUSINS, M., 2004. The story of film. London: Pavilion.
FINK, A., 1998. Conducting research literature reviews : from paper to the Internet. Thousand Oaks, Calif. ; London: Sage.
LEE, G., 16th July 2007. DVD Holds its own in Face of New Technologies [online]. Yahoo Finance. Available at: http://biz.yahoo.com/iw/070716/0277914.html [Accessed October 15th 2007].
NEALE, S., 1985. Cinema and technology : image, sound, colour. London: Macmillan Education.
ROMAN, S., 2001. Digital Babylon : Hollywood, Indiewood & Dogme 95. Los Angeles; Lanham, MD: Ifilm; Distributed to the trade by National Book Network.
RUSSEL, M.E., 2004. The Fan Films Strike Back. The Daily Standard.
SALT, B., 1983. Film style and technology : history and analysis. London: Starword.
SKLAR, R., 2002. A world history of film. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
STEVENS, J., 2007. Digital Cinema Is On The Way [online].
blackfix. Available at: http://www.blackflix.com/articles/digital_cinema.html [Accessed October 23rd 2007].
Online film piracy set to rise 9th July 2004. [online].
BBC. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3879519.stm [Accessed October 15th 2007].
Internet Movie Database 2007. [online]. Available at: http://www.imdb.com/ [Accessed October 20th 2007].
CANFOR-DUMAS, E., INTERVIEW
Bibliography:
Wikipedia 2007. [online]. Available at: http://www.wikipedia.org/ [Accessed October 25th 2007].
TJARKS, M., 2003. Reframing The Frontier. Denver, U.S.A.: Hawaii Pacific University.
BIZONY, P., 2001. Digital Domain: The leading edge of visual effects. London: Billboard Books.
CLARK, J.A. And BRUNS, M.W . Practical digital cinema distribution in an evolving technology environment. Grass Valley Group. Available at: http://www.grassvalley.com/wp/Clark/D-Cinema_Distribution/2AW-8109.pdf [Accessed November 4th 2007].
Barry Pulver
BA Multimedia
November 2007
Acknowledgements:
I would like to thank the following:
Edward Canfor-Dumas, for agreeing to an interview and for providing specific information and his experiences in the television industry.
Deborah Tuck, my tutor for this project.
Nottingham Trent University, for providing information on the structure in which research projects are to be written.
Abstract:
Film directors and producers are amongst some of the most recognisable people in the world. Their work is showcased to millions globally,and they can produce work that can take the audience on a journey to wherever they want to take them.
But how has the role of a filmmaker changed in the last 50 years?
During such a long period of time, cinema has under gone drastic changes and has seen large audience declines. In the modern day, where inventions such as digital television and the internet, along with affordable filming equipment have potentially threatened to spell the beginning of the end for cinema and therefore filmmakers.
Just how have filmmakers coped with the new visual technologies and ideologies that have had such an influence on Hollywood, and has their work and role of their job changed drastically over such a lengthy period of time?
Contents:
Content Page
Abstract 3
Contents 4
List of figures 5
Chapter One: Introduction 6
Chapter Two: Research Methods 8
Chapter Three: Survey of literature and works 10
Chapter Four: Discussion 15
Chapter Five: Conclusion 19
References 21
Bibliography 23
List of figures:
Figure 1 - Motion Picture Association of America 2007. U.S. Entertainment Industry Market Statistics 2006 [online] . Available at: http://www.mpaa.org/USEntertainmentIndustryMarketStats.pdf [Accessed November 9th 2007].
Introduction:
The terminology of the title 'filmmaker' can refer to many differing roles as it is quite a general term. In this report, the word filmmaker refers to film directors and film producers.
Film at the cinema is a very popular and successful franchise, in fact in 2006, it is reported that the worldwide box office reached an all-time high, by taking $25.820 billion in revenue. Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA)
This has not always been the way, film has had many factors and opposition to compete with, and at times the state of the cinema seemed in great doubt. The late 1940’s saw audience figures decline, and this was the way through the 1950’s. The emergence of US broadcasting television networks in 1946 was one of the biggest competitors film and cinema had to compete against.
In addition, with the constant evolution in visual technology, many had predicted the downfall of traditional film projectors being used in cinemas and being replaced by digital projection screens. It is stated that at present in America, out of 38,000 movie screens, only 25 of those have the capable infrastructure necessary to receive digital films. J. Stevens (2007)
These changes in the industry have made the role of a filmmaker constantly change. From being a very specific and specialist job, the rise of independent filmmakers began the process of breaking the stranglehold of the major studios, which came to fruition started in the 1950’s which along with the development in hand held cameras and the impact that Von Trier’s and Vinterberg’s innovative Dogme filming concept had on filmmakers, gave inspiration for new filmmakers the inspiration to succeed.
The topic of research has been chosen because the role of a filmmaker is ever changing, and it is interesting to see how over the last fifty years the specific role of the filmmaker has changed with the impact of evolving visual technology.
This research project will delve into greater depth of the history of the cinema, changing visual technology and the state of the film industry over the last fifty years; from declining audience figures due to the impact of television in the 1940’s to the predicted modern day declining audience figures due to illegal distribution of films via the internet.
The project will discuss the evolution of visual technology, and compare it to the how successful cinema was, and the impact it had on filmmakers. It will explain the digitalisation of film, and how the lowering cost of production for digital films is making it easier for filmmakers to create films without the need of big production companies.
Research Methods:
The most applicable methodology to produce the research topic is a combination of mixed methods called triangulation.
Triangulation has been explained as:
“Triangulation is a term that refers to reliance on a combination of several methods including quantitative as well as qualitative strategies.” Fink (1998 p. 148)
Using this research method will enhance the research quantity and more importantly the quality and depth into the research area.
It is claimed that “no single method of collecting data is inherently better or has more quality than another.” Fink (1998 p.150) This reasoning is why multiple research methods are to be used as it will create a much broader and valuable depth to the research.
Qualitative research is one method that is going to be used for the research project. This method uses a variety of empirical methods, such as interviews and historical information, which are the main two that will be focused upon. The historical research is specifically relevant when explaining the change in technology over the last 50 years. It is said how “Qualitative research is harder, more stressful and more time-consuming than other types” of research. Delament 1992 (see Blaxter, Hughes and Tight p. 60) This is added when stating “Qualitative research...tends to focus on ‘the story’”. Fink (1998 p. 144) These quotes suggest that the reason for the more lengthy research time taken is due to the detail of information included. This will give the understanding of the historical changes in technology and the role of the filmmaker in history.
However, it is declared that, “Where two or more methods are used...try and verify the validity of the information”. Blaxter, Hughes and Tight (1996 p.77) This is a very useful and important quote which will be taken into consideration, as the validity of the information research is of the utmost importance, especially if a vast amount of literature is going to be researched. If the information is from an unknown or unrecognised source, it will be seen to have less credibility than information from a very relevant and appropriate source.
Along with validity, the clarity and appropriateness of the information is also important. It is stated that “Before beginning to review them all you must sort them to identify the ones that contain information”. Fink (1998 p.52) This just reinforces that the quality control of the research, with the amount of literature available needs to be condensed into only using the valid information.
The internet is a valuable resource for researching, however it is explained that the internet provides positives and negatives:
“its greatest advantage is that some portion of the world’s literature has been made conveniently available to you. A major disadvantage you have is that quality controls simply do not exist.” Fink (1998 p.37)
It is important that personal opinion or potential bias does not manipulate the information changing from the context in which it was originally stated. It is also important to understand the author’s opinion in the text, and present the information in a neutral way, also checking for any underlying persuasion in the content.
The use of statistical information is going to be used as a reliable way to display the information with a factual background. This will add validity to the argument, but the information must come from a viable source.
An interview with a multimedia practitioner will be undertaken as it will add a more valid discussion to the project, and speaking to the practitioner and receiving personal experiences within the industry, will help understand the topic far more clearly.
Survey of Literature and Works:
Looking back to just after one of Hollywood’s most successful years in 1946, It is explained how audience sizes began to decline at the cinemas, due to “population shifts to the suburbs...and growing interest in outdoor and participatory leisure activities.” Skyler (1993) This point is also developed further when it was stated that people would rather “spend their money on new consumer goods rather than movies”. Cousins (2004)
The audience decline would not improve drastically until the 1960’s, as the impact that the war had on America hit the film industry hard. It was also a hard time for American filmmakers themselves as was pointed out:
“It is perhaps not surprising that American filmmakers were going through a period of narrative soul searching. Not only had war darkened their sunny view of life, but closer to home, their industry was changing.” Cousins (2004)
The struggles that Hollywood encountered at this time lead to questions being raised, with the government challenging Paramount and other major companies (successfully) to not hold a financial interest in theatre ownership, (under violating U.S. laws against monopoly in restraint of trade) in the well publicised ‘Paramount Case’.
After the war and the Paramount Case, the increasing number of independent filmmakers rose sharply. It is commented how the major studios were clinging onto their traditions, whereas independent producers “began to break the strangehold of the major studios by tackling more daring subjects”. R. Bergan (see DK, 2003 p.394) The new approach to film, that the independent filmmakers had brought to the screen was a positive one, as by 1958, 65% of Hollywood movies were being made by independent filmmakers.
The problem was that the rise of independent films made by independent filmmakers, did not help the continuing decline of the cinema. Skyler (1993) described that by 1960, the weekly cinema attendance had fallen 63% from 1946. In turn, this led to reductions in production and employment in the industry.
As an effort to improve the declining cinema audiences, the early 1950’s saw new visual technology introduced. The introduction of wide-screen brought a transformation to the film image, in which the intention was to differentiate between the images shown for films and the television. Three differing processes offered wide-screen; in the name of Cinerama, Cinemascope and Panavision.
The filmmakers (most specifically producers) who were working for the big film companies, were instructed as to with which of the three colour technology's format they would be producing their work in. However, independent filmmakers had to be aware of each of the technology's without committing to one of them.
Whilst Cinerama was ultimately unsuccessful due to suffering problems with its three camera process, Cinemascope was used by Fox who produced more than 150 Cinemascope films until 1960. Panavision outnumbering CinemaScope, cam to an end in 1967.
However on the larger scale, wide-screen introduced a greater use of colour and sound to the cinema. The innovation of wide-screen has been related to the audience decline:
“Wide-screen served only a temporary palliative for Hollywood’s audience decline. Average weekly attendance rose in the year 1954-56 as spectators returned to theatres to take a look at highly publicised technologies, but when their novelty wore off the deeper causes for audience loss [were shown] – lifestyle changes and television.” Skyler (1993 p.316)
Arguably the greatest competition to the cinema was the rapid development of television. U.S television networks began broadcasting in 1946, which was at the peak of cinema and after this year the audience at the cinemas declined. Television gave audiences a more flexible approach to watching what they wanted to watch, and from the comfort of their own home. One advantage film had over television was the innovation of colour technology which was being used as opposed to black and white television. Eastman color was the dominant colour process used in the early 1950’s, at the time where television was having a major impact on the industry.
It is described how the use of colour accelerated “in particular during the early 1950s until colour films comprised some 50 per cent of total U.S. output.” Neale (1985) However despite the new innovations in technology (namely wide-screen and colour technology) cinema audiences continued to decline, this forced the decline of use of colour in film. This was until during the 1960’s when television converted to colour, in which “the use of colour in the cinema because virtually universal” Neale (1985).
It is explained how the 1960’s saw changes to the film audience, by the loss of the older audience, those over thirty. However it is said this “also helped a number of young filmmakers to get a chance to direct feature films”. Salt (1983) This was the period similar to the 1920’s where European filmmaking had an influence on American cinema. However, It is expressed how “Hollywood consolidated its position as the powerhouse of world cinema”, he does later concede that “challenged also by new kinds of cinema from other countries...Hollywood was forced to reinvent itself.” Buscombe (2003 p.11) Changing to the modern day, it is described how many Hollywood films have been made by filmmakers from other countries. Skyler (1993 p.497) The contrasting viewpoints do all suggest that Hollywood is still the main place of the cinema industry, and it is stated that the top twenty films box office hits in 2006 were all American. MPAA (Motion Picture Associate of America)
However, filmmakers are getting opportunities from all over the world to succeed, although now they do not have to migrate to Hollywood as the reinvention of Hollywood forced the cinema industry to look further afield for filmmakers.
The development of more portable cameras made it easier for more filmmakers to produce their work. The introduction of direct cinema could be attributed to the start of the phenomena. Direct cinema is described as “a desire to capture reality and represent it truthfully”. Morin (1980)
Direct cinema needed to be filmed using a light portable camera, and with sound. The first film to be made in this format was Primary in 1960, a widely seen film following presidential hopes at the time, J. F. Kennedy and H. Humphreys. This was made by filmmaker Robert Drew, and the film propelled him into a successful career in the television industry.
By the early 1960’s there was a demand for lighter cameras that were more portable, the technology was gradually introduced by developing previous camera technology. This was the very early start of what would develop into DV (Digital Video) technology which was portable, and as it was developed (especially through the 1990’s) became very inexpensive and allowed anybody to use the equipment and make their own films. Despite the widely inexpensive portable camera equipment, it is reported that:
“Independent production companies are facing increasing hardship as they struggle to raise finance fast enough to keep abreast of the spiralling costs of making and marketing movies”. LA Times (17/11/95)
In the same year in Copenhagen, Denmark, Lars Von Trier and Thomas Vinterberg created a manifesto called Dogme 95. Dogme 95 was a concept which was aiming to bring a purer form of film to the cinema. The concept is for the filmmaker to make a film with DV cameras, using no special effects or props and to take no credit for the production. Dogme 95 brought a new complexion to the use of filmmaking (specifically film direction) using a less technical approach to filming.
Coupled with the affordability of DV cameras, the introduction of the first personal computer from IBM in 1981, in which by 1984 professional computers had become powerful enough to contain whole films, it is explained that:
“The effect of video editing was that moving scenes, pieces of action or tiny moments around the film took seconds rather than minutes.” Cousins (2004 p.399)
The pinnacle success of a low budget movie was in 1999 with the success of the Blair Witch Project. Made for $30,000, it had earned more than $100 million in just one month, the film was the most profitable film of the year in the U.S. This was quite some success, considering Star Wars episode one, and Toy Story 2 (A film made entirely using digital technology) were released in the same year. It was reported that whilst not the best independent film ever made, “its success confirms the internet's power as a marketing tool.” L.A. Times (20/9/99) It was confirmed that the success of the film was due to it being “marketed on the internet”. Cousins (2003 p.457)
This success created a trend of many people producing and making their own productions which were accessible for free on the internet, specifically on social networking websites, most noticeably, MySpace.
It was explained how “many cultural pundits had predicted the decline” of television and film due to internet video, what has happened has been the opposite. Ringsurf (2004) It was reported that:
“The giant Internet service provider America Online (AOL) announced that it will acquire Time-Warner. The $165 billion merger has fuelled speculation that other unions between movie studios and Internet partners may be imminent.” New York Times (17/1/00)
This bold move and the success of the Blair Witch film, showed how the emergence of the internet and other new technology mediums would not necessarily hinder the filmmakers, but if linked together, could be marketed via the medium and become even more successful.
It was explained how fan pressure from the internet can have a direct impact on Hollywood filmmakers. After New Line Cinema decided to rethink the name of an upcoming film titled ‘Snakes on a Plane’, “fans slated the decision on websites and blogs and New Line changed its mind” and named the film as the fans had wanted. Clasper (via Telegraph 10/4/07)
It is thought that despite the potential of any filmmaker to distribute their film, ultimately the professional filmmaker's work will prevail:
“Quality seeks quality. The amount of work [on MySpace] which is viewed is excessive, however it is only viewed once and when the novelty has worn off people do not bother. If people are genuinely impressed with what they see, the audience will keep coming back. [This is] one reason why the roll of a filmmaker today is as important as it always has been.” Canfor-Dumas, E., (2007)
The worldwide use of the internet and it’s very close connection to cinema has people worried about the threat of film piracy and the impact it could have on cinema attendance. Two major issues were found on the subject; firstly that “the U.S. motion picture studios lost $6.1 billion in 2005 to piracy worldwide”. Interestingly they comment how only 38% of piracy is from the internet as opposed to 62% from hard goods i.e. DVDs. MPAA (2006)
It was also found that DVDs sold in 2006 reached a record $23 billion, in comparison to $9.5 billion box office revenue and $982 million for internet and cable movies. These statistics show that whilst the industry is making record profit, they are also losing record amounts of revenue from the increasing threat of piracy. Yahoo Finance’s (2007)
Discussion:
The originally discussed cinema decline post 1946 might have been over exaggerated by the sources quoted, due to what happened in 1946. Not only was one of the ultimately most successful films released entitled ‘It’s a Wonderful Life’, but it was the year of the first ever Cannes film festival. It is addressed that how “Much of what happened involved completing unfinished business from the 1930’s, postponed but also altered by the war”. Skyler (1993 p.274) The decline of the cinema sixty years ago could be compared to the decline in box office takings in 2005. It is displayed how the box office gross from being $9,539 billion in 2004, dropped to $8,991 billion in 2005, before rising to $9,487 billion in 2006:
Figure 1 – Showing the box office gross figures in America from 1986 to 2006.
This might well of coincided with the third biggest U.S. box office taking film Shrek 2 being released in 2004, and the sixth biggest being released in 2006 titled Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man’s Chest. IMDB (2006) This shows that the statistics are all relative and situational, and they do not represent the significant declines at the cinema for one specific reason, which the resources did appear to ignore.
It is pointed out in relation to the understanding in which filmmakers were undergoing difficulties during the decline, that this was a very understandable situation. With the war ending, filmmakers had to deal with life changing situations and the recovery of the economy. Filmmakers did their best, and one positive to come out of the decline was the introduction and development from Hollywood of the film noir genre. It is described that “film 'noir' has influenced younger filmmakers for decades.” Cousins (2004 p. 278) This is because the film noir motion was vastly different from the ‘happy endings’ and 'good defeating evil' theme that was the norm at the time. Film noir broke the stereotype barrier and allowed filmmakers to become more creative with their ideas.
The film noir genre inspired many filmmakers, specifically directors. It was breaking the tradition of films, and this lead to a new younger cinema audience and also gave inspiration to new and younger filmmakers.
The Paramount Case meant a significant change for filmmakers. It offered a lot more opportunities for independent filmmakers to get their work published and shown. The end of the case specifically saw the rise of ‘independent art house theatres’ in which independent films could also be shown. The Paramount Case ultimately made it easier for filmmakers to get the opportunity to show their work, if they were not working for a studio.
Similar to the Paramount Case, despite the rising independent films in 1958 not accounting for a halt in cinema's decline, the rise of independent film was a good thing for filmmakers. It gave another platform to showcase their work, and with more validity in which to do so. Unfortunately the continuing decline in the cinema led to reductions in production and employment in the industry. This move did force some filmmakers to turn to working independently not through choice, so whilst the opportunity for independent filmmakers to get their work published was on the increase, so was the competition between the filmmakers working independently.
The success of home television forced the film industry to take notice. Not before long, film studios were developing programming for television, and film stars were appearing on television instead. The cost of labour was cheaper abroad, so many filmmakers especially film producers decided to take their film production abroad. The success of American television, was proving to be a place where directors and producers would start their trade and become filmmakers, this again provided another medium for filmmakers to make it into the industry.
Hollywood being the centre of the film industry had always meant filmmakers having less opportunities in the industry unless moving to Hollywood. The impact of Dogme 95 (from Denmark) gave Europeans and those outside Hollywood (where opportunities are limited) inspiration and proof that filmmakers can be successful outside of Hollywood.
Similar to the success of Dogme, the development of portable cameras and their low cost has allowed filmmaking to be affordable. The success of the Blair Witch project shows that filmmakers do not have to spend big money to create a successful film. This has been another catalyst for more practitioners to attempt filmmaking.
Despite the prediction that the internet would be the end for cinema and film, it has proved to be a very valuable asset alongside film. Its marketing over the internet (especially for the Blair Witch), has shown how the internet can be used very efficiently by filmmakers as a promotional tool. The piracy issue is a negative issue for the internet and it causing a lot of distress for filmmakers. Piracy is increasing year upon year, although DVD piracy is the most common way of pirating films. Until the piracy issue is addressed fully, filmmakers will have reservations with the internet, without neglecting it due to its powerful reach and marketing ability.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, fifty years is a long time especially in the multimedia and film industry. The main development over that period of time is the change and evolution of visual technology. Many new technological advances and improvements have been made from an era where colour was just being introduced to the sector. However the ideology is essentially the same, as with years gone by, many wrongly in the industry still maintain that ‘bigger is better’ and special effects in films are what the industry should be based around. Filmmakers have always had to produce work that is asked of them from the film studios, however with the power that the audience possesses in the modern day, filmmakers do not have as much power as they used to.
Filmmakers now have more chances and domains to showcase their work. This is a positive due to the potential exposure that can be had, however the negative is that due to the affordability of video recording equipment, there is a lot of competition with many people competing in an industry where few succeed. If the quality of the product that the filmmaker produces is of a high standard, then the more opportunities are available to them in the modern day, which is far superior than in previous decades.
The Internet has become an increasingly important tool for filmmakers. The potential marketability this offers to a worldwide audience can be utilised by filmmakers, this tool is something that has not been available in past. This potentially allows filmmaker’s access to a more affordable and convenient film market, one that helps filmmakers that was not available in the past.
The Internet also offers communities for filmmakers to receive both help and assistance with current and future projects using other people’s experiences, it also is a potential way of contacting other workers in the industry and to hire crew or actors. This has only become a common practise over the last five years, especially with the success of social networking website such as MySpace.
Essentially the role of a filmmaker is the same, but the rise of the internet and technology such as portable cameras has allowed filmmakers in the modern day to be more privileged to more opportunities and a better and easier marketing tool. Along with the affordability of recording equipment and software allowing anybody to effectively become a filmmaker, it just reinforces that professional filmmakers will continue to flourish as they always have done, because the difference in quality between a professional and others is easily noticeable.
The main difference in the role of filmmakers now compared to fifty years ago, is that the majority of filmmakers now are independent workers, but upon their success at the cinema, they can ultimately join a film studio and produce their work for the company.
Filmmakers are still expected to produce films of the highest quality, and it is expected that with the development of better standards of visual technology, the films produced will be of the highest quality.
References:
Motion Picture Association of America 2007. [online]. . Available at: http://www.mpaa.org/ [Accessed October 30th 2007].
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BLAXTER, L., TIGHT, M., and HUGHES, C., 1996. How to research. Buckingham: Open University Press.
BUSCOMBE, E., 2003. Cinema today. London: Phaidon.
CLASPER, J., 2007. How audience power could shape the future of movie-making. Telegraph http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2007/04/10/bfcinema110.xml.
COUSINS, M., 2004. The story of film. London: Pavilion.
FINK, A., 1998. Conducting research literature reviews : from paper to the Internet. Thousand Oaks, Calif. ; London: Sage.
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RUSSEL, M.E., 2004. The Fan Films Strike Back. The Daily Standard.
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SKLAR, R., 2002. A world history of film. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
STEVENS, J., 2007. Digital Cinema Is On The Way [online].
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CANFOR-DUMAS, E., INTERVIEW
Bibliography:
Wikipedia 2007. [online]. Available at: http://www.wikipedia.org/ [Accessed October 25th 2007].
TJARKS, M., 2003. Reframing The Frontier. Denver, U.S.A.: Hawaii Pacific University.
BIZONY, P., 2001. Digital Domain: The leading edge of visual effects. London: Billboard Books.
CLARK, J.A. And BRUNS, M.W . Practical digital cinema distribution in an evolving technology environment. Grass Valley Group. Available at: http://www.grassvalley.com/wp/Clark/D-Cinema_Distribution/2AW-8109.pdf [Accessed November 4th 2007].
Saturday, 1 December 2007
Literature Review Completed and Handed In
The research project has been completed and handed in.
It will be posted on this journal in the next couple of days.
It will be posted on this journal in the next couple of days.
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